iCreative thinking--the use of imagination to find the best solutions for the important problems of the world--has great significance in our society today. The imaginative power of people is one of the world's great resources as yet largely untapped.
iWe can increase our effectiveness in creative pursuits somewhat by simply recognizing the existence of certain mental and cultural blocks. We can increase our effectiveness even more by better organization of our approach to creative problem solving. Probably the most significant principles in this regard are to gather many possible solutions and to separate insofar as possible the gathering of ideas from the evaluation of ideas.
iPrograms for stimulating creative thinking are of two types—educational and operational. Educational programs tell people how to make better use of their imaginations. Operational programs [as distinct from educational programs] are techniques for mass producing ideas. An example of an educational program is General Electric's eighteen year old Creative Engineering Program. This is an intensive eighteen month training program designed to give a select group of young product designers a creative approach to solving engineering problems. Within the past two years, companies such as B.F. Goodrich, Radio Corporation of America and A.C. Spark Plug Division of General Motors have begun experimentation in creative programs.
iiGeneral courses designed to stimulate personal creativity but not in any particular field are being offered by schools such as Boston University, Columbia University, University of Rochester, and others. In addition, seminar courses on creativity of one to two weeks duration have been offered by M.I.T. and the University of Pennsylvania.
iiAll creative training efforts in business have not met with success. A tremendous problem of gaining acceptance is involved because the "art of creative thinking" is new, the terminology is suspicious-sounding, and the subject matter and results are both often intangible.
iiiThe future of stimulating creativity by planned means is bright and holds promise for a way to better living for the people of the world.
iii Doriot was WWII quartermaster.We wish to express our indebtedness to Professor Georges F. Doriot for his inspiration and interest in our report. We would like to acknowledge the special cooperation given us by Professor John Arnold of M.I.T., Mr. W.J.J. Gordon of Arthur D. Little, Inc. Charles Clark of Ethyl Corporation, and Alex F. Osborn of Batten, Barton, Durstine, and Osborn.
1It is this ability to absorb past experience, to learn by it, and to combine it in new and useful ways that more than any other factor has differentiated man from the animal world.
1Today the need for creative people is greater than ever. We are faced with such momentous problems as learning to live together with all the peoples of a troubled world, feeding the world's rapidly growing population, getting optimum utilization of increasingly limited national and world resources, utilizing increased amounts of leisure time, and a host of others. If living standards are to continue to rise, more and more creative solutions to these problems must be found.
1A basic premise upon which all of these theories rest is the belief that the potential ability to create new ideas is present in all men to a greater or lesser degree, and that through proper training or through use of certain techniques, this ability can be developed.
2In order to further narrow the scope of the report, we have eliminated several subjects related to creative output. These are as follows:
1. Suggestion systems and bonus systems. These provide rewards but do not show people how to be more creative.
2. Training programs intended primarily to transmit knowledge of company operations or technical fields.
3. Methods for selection of creative individuals. This is an extensive subject in itself, but we are more concerned with stimulating creative thinking than selecting people for creative work.
E.K. Von Fange, of General Electric Company, The Creative Process of Engineering.
5We conclude that there is much to be learned by observing these highly creative people, but that the creative process is the same for them as for anybody else.
12The desire to be more creative can be encouraged in numerous ways. One of the most important of these is the creation of an awareness of the tremendous importance of new ideas. Once people realize this great importance, they are apt to be willing to devote more time and effort to becoming more creative.
1Someone once said, 'Ideas are a dime a dozen.' But now we know they are precious. In fact, ideas are not dimes but diamonds.
The provision of suitable rewards is another way in which the desire to be creative can be fostered. If creative ability is recognized, and becomes an important measure of success or one of the bases for advancement, then people will want to become more creative in order to be successful.
Another factor that greatly encourages the desire to be creative is a permissive atmosphere. The prevailing atmosphere in a situation is the sum total of a number of different elements. Basically, a permissive atmosphere is one that is receptive to new ideas. A few of the elements that create a permissive atmosphere are: freedom of expression, encouragement by superiors and colleagues, and mutual trust and respect. A non-permissive atmosphere is characterized by lack of any of the above mentioned elements as well as factors such as domineering and overcritical superiors who repress original thinking, and customs and conventions that weigh against new ideas.
13Most people are not clearly aware that they have any creative ability. They tend to adopt the attitude that only the Einsteins and Edisons are creative. This is not true at all. From all indications, neither sex, age, nor degree of education are determinants of innate creativity. Creative individuals can be found in all classes of the population, and there are many creative people who have never had the advantage of a formal education. The salesman, the engineer, the lawyer and the housewife are continually solving problems that call for creative solutions.
One of the most noticeable features of the people known to be highly creative is their dissatisfaction with things as they are. They are always asking themselves and others—Why is this made this way? Is this object really necessary? What can be done to improve this. This questioning approach represents a refusal to be restricted by habit and environment.
16Business problems should not be classified as either creative or non-creative problems. Most business problems have some creative element. Many require highly creative solutions.
17An important characteristic of creative problems is that there are many feasible solutions. But if a better-than-average solution is to be found, many ideas must be evaluated, and a good general rule is DON'T MIX IMAGINATION WITH EVALUATION. There is nothing more devastating to the flow of ideas than to dash them with cold judgment.
18The means by which we evaluate and choose have been much better developed in our civilization than the means by which we reap the ideas to evaluate.
20The Chicago YMCA with the backing of a group of Chicago businessmen is sponsoring Y-Inventors' clubs throughout Chicago. These groups are intended to supply both stimulus and outlet for the creative ability of teenagers.
20In 1937, General Electric Company decided to do something to stimulate latent, creative talent and thereby began their program which is now known as "Creative Engineering."... during the sixteen years the program has been in operation, 347 men have graduated from it. Because of the individual achievement of these men after the completion of the course, the program has definitely proven itself in the eyes of the General Electric Company.
20Early in 1954, B.F. Goodrich organized a pilot group of twenty technical men, mostly engineers, to attend fourteen sessions on the subject of creative thinking.
20The Radio Corporation of America has established two different programs for this purpose in the last two years. There is a "new ideas" program and a high level training program called the "Systems Engineering Course."
21Columbia University has a course in their Institute of Arts and Sciences called "Applied Imagination." Boston University's School of Public Relations has a course entitled "Creative Thinking." Both use Alex Osborn's book "Applied Imagination" as their text.
22In addition, there are many other colleges and universities whose Air R.O.T.C. programs use the Osborn text in conjunction with their course, "Creative Problem Solving."
23There is no question in our minds that ideas are important—probably the most important competitive weapon any business has. Furthermore, very little observation of business is necessary to conclude that business is not getting anywhere near the full potential creative output of its leaders and workers, partially because business leaders do not know how to encourage presentation of new ideas by their subordinates, and partially because people have no confidence in their ability to be more creative or knowledge of what one can do to become more creative.
The importance of institutional acceptance. 24The chief limiting factor of this type of external program (external to the companies from which the members come), as gleaned from our correspondence with the seminar graduates is the fact that the men go back to work in a company atmosphere which is not permissive. They are unable to sell the ideas that were presented in the seminar and they slip back into old patterns.
29Through their systematic approach they force the individual to think in an orderly fashion and explore areas he might otherwise miss. Their constant use creates habits which should lead to more creative work whenever one is confronted with a problem. As with all habits, however, these techniques must not be allowed to become a routine task used without imagination. As such they become a useless and perhaps dangerous tool.
30Brainstorming: All of us have participated in small impromptu groups, dreaming of ways to play a trick on someone. We remember the delight we found in proposing an outlandish scheme, having it immediately topped by someone else, and then through sheer inspiration presenting an even more outlandish trick ourselves.
The buoyant spirit permeating these groups is indeed an exhilarating sensation, and occasionally the resulting ideas are truly ingenious—real creations brought into existence as the direct result of the mutual support and encouragement of the group.
32Osborn's rules for brainstorming:
Judicial judgment is ruled out.
Free-wheeling is welcomed.
Quantity is wanted.
Combinations and improvements are sought.
The drawbacks of experts! 34It is helpful for panelists to have different backgrounds so that different types of ideas will come out. On the other hand, "experts" or superiors are likely to add dampening restrictions and inhibitions to the group discussion.
37These sessions [within BBDO] became known as Merchandising-Promotional Panels because they deal primarily with merchandising and promotion, rather than with advertising as such.
40There seems to be a general agreement that the better brainstorming groups contain people with diverse backgrounds. It is also generally felt that at least some of the people in the group should have little direct experience in the problem area. The reasoning behind this is that people without experience in the field bring a new point of view. Their thinking is not restricted by any do's and don'ts that experts may have observed. They are not afraid to present unorthodox ideas that often provide a stimulus to radical new developments.
40Mixed groups of men and women are often more successful than groups composed exclusively of one sex, because men and women often have widely different points of view. And, the presence of both tends to heighten the competitive spirit of the session.
Mixed groups do have one drawback (generally minor). The participants are apt to be more inhibited in their suggestions. Off-color jokes which may play an important part in all male sessions have to be eliminated.
40Most people feel that it is unwise to mix people who hold different ranks within the organization in the same brainstorming session. Vice-presidents should brainstorm with vice-presidents, and junior executives with junior executives.
43Many people feel that brainstorming sessions that are held in the morning are more productive because the participants are fresher. Though this may be true, we have observed one effect that seems to favor the use of late afternoon sessions. This is the fact that these sessions are extremely stimulating and the effects of this excitement often lasts beyond the session. Sometimes a participant will become so excited by the session that he can think of little else besides the session and the results achieved for several hours afterwards. In cases where this man has routine work to do, he may be less than efficient.
4445Conclusion: In our opinion, the Osborn system is a simple technique that can be very useful in providing new ideas and helping people become more creative. In addition to effects claimed for it in the earlier discussion in this chapter, we feel it is useful because:
1. It dramatizes new ideas and makes people focus their attention on them, and realize their importance.
2. It shows people that they do have imagination, and the ability to have new ideas. This can be very beneficial for their ego and their self-confidence.
53Although we believe the techniques described earlier do result in greater creativity and more ideas, their acceptance has been slow. The newness of the idea that you can stimulate creativity is one of the principal causes for this lack of acceptance. When the automobile appeared on the American scene, it too suffered from lack of acceptance. With time, it became accepted and today is almost a necessity. We believe that in time the study of creative thinking will be accepted also.
54Perhaps an even greater obstacle to acceptance is the fact that these ideas are often regarded with suspicion. The following quotation from a letter received from one of America's largest corporations is an extreme expression of this attitude: "creative thinking sounds like just the kind of thing to make Senator McCarthy take off into the stratosphere." We feel the reasons for this suspicion are: first, the simplicity and seemingly non-scientific basis of these techniques causes distrust. They are just too easy to use. People feel that complex problems should be solved in a more arduous manner. Secondly, the respectability of creative thinking has not been helped by some of the descriptive terms used. "Creative thinking," "ideation" and "brainstorming" sound as if they have been taken from a science fiction magazine. These dramatic terms are sufficient in many cases to scare away the more conservative and cause them to look with disdain on the entire subject.
Institutionalizing new ideas from the top-down. 54Finally, even though a man believes in these techniques and in their effectiveness, he is often reluctant to push for their adoption in his company. A questionnaire sent to a middle management group which had attended a creative design seminar at M.I.T. confirmed this opinion. Only in one or two cases had the man been able to utilize these techniques in his company. We feel the principal reason behind this is the tremendous burden one assumes when he champions these techniques. Because they are not generally accepted, he makes himself liable to abuse and ridicule. Some people may even question his sanity. Conceivably, it might even cost him his job.
On the other hand, we have pointed to a number of companies in which these methods are being used. In a great many cases, they were installed because the man at the top was sold on them. Dr. Elliot R. Danzig, Charles Clark, and Alex Osborn all feel that to be successful you must sell these ideas to top management.
56Although we believe strongly that the techniques presented are effective, we hesitate to recommend their universal adoption. Before use can become widespread, acceptance must be gained. The reason for the lack of acceptance is spelled out in the previous chapter.
The situation is not hopeless however. If an intelligent approach is made, the dangers involved in installing a program can be avoided or minimized. The point to be emphasized is that this decision should not be made lightly. It is best to proceed slowly and cautiously.
57The results you can expect have already been indicated. In addition to tangible usable ideas that may very well be the difference between a successful company and an unsuccessful one, there are intangible benefits such as improved attitudes and creativity that are impossible to measure.
57No matter what type of program a company contemplates establishing, it must be installed properly.
60Getting people in a receptive mood or getting them used to the idea of creative thinking is probably the most important part of installing any program. In other words, an effective promotional campaign should probably be an integral part of any plan of action.
60Recently, the Corning Glass Company conducted a New Products contest for original and unusual ideas. The emphasis was on originality. The company received more than 22,000 entries. Besides being an effective way to accustom employees to "wild thinking" and making them new idea or new product conscious, it also gave the company some useful product ideas. Among the products suggested were glass BB shot, glass structural beams, glass chessmen and glass H-bomb parts.
Remarkable emphasis on what could go wrong suggests the generally conservative business climate. 61We want to emphasize that careful study and preparation are necessary before any program is installed, and that this is something that one should not rush into blindly.
62In recent years an increasing amount of attention has been focused on the subject of creativity and the power of the imagination. Much of this increased attention is due to the efforts of Alex Osborn.
63Without a doubt the most serious limitation of programs of this type is the problem of acceptance. Newness of the subject, overzealous literature, suspicious sounding terminology and the intangible nature of the subject combine to make programs utilizing these techniques difficult to sell.
63The new idea of creative thinking is suffering from the same lack of acceptance that most new ideas encounter. Business will continue to make slow progress. Some of the large companies will probably lead the way because they can devote specialized attention to program development.
64We do not agree with some disclaimants who say that the new emphasis on creative thinking is merely a fad. New ideas are too important to our economy, and effectiveness of these techniques has been demonstrated over a number of years in many cases. Our expectancy would be rather to the contrary. As more and more routine tasks are relegated to automatic machinery and electronic brains, people will be freed to spend more time in creative work. As "clerks" become more and more replaceable, a higher premium will be placed on creative ability. Recognition of this emphasis will lead to greater marketability for means to increase creative power.
64On the bright side, Westinghouse reports it is now possible for its creative people to earn as much as its managers. Ryerson reports that in its selection of people for management it pays considerable attention to heavy contributors to the company suggestion system.
65Studies such as Dr. J.P. Guilford's study on creativity sponsored by the Federal Government at the University of Southern California, may reveal more about the creative process and how it may be influenced.
C.F. Hix Jr., The Creative Engineering Program, a General Electric Company Manual 66In 1937, General Electric began a program to stimulate latent, creative talent. The program was entitled "Creative Engineering." It was designed to provide a permissive atmosphere for young engineers to develop and later apply their creative ability.
At the time of the inception of the program, the prevalent belief was that an engineer's creative ability was indicated primarily by his facility at design work with emphasis on his selection of material and functional design forms. Possession of this combination coupled with their adaptation to the manufacturing processes marked the creative person. However, it became apparent that such a belief greatly restricted true creative capacity. Such an emphasis on material selection and functional design stifled creativeness on the part of the engineer.
68The creative philosophy presented is that of L.W. Guth as presented in his paper on "A Creative Approach to a Design Problem." In addition, Alex Osborn's text "Applied Imagination" is used. It is the text which serves that portion of the course designed to stimulate and develop creative ability.
Look into patent law circa World War II. Also the Harvard class project on patents. 71Both groups have been found similar, however, in their individual student achievements. Despite relatively short times after completion of the course many graduates were found to have many times more patent assignments than the non-program man.
72At BBDO, these panels consist of a permanent chairman, an idea collector and a core of five regular members, who participate in as many projects as possible, and about five guests.
72BBDO believes the atmosphere created by the physical appearance of the room in which the "brainstorming" is carried out is important. With this in mind, they revamped one of their private offices. On the basis of a consultant's recommendations, the walls of the room were painted yellow as a thought stimulant. Two long plain tables of blond, knotty pine wood with chairs to match were moved in. ON one of the walls and in prominent view of all panel members was places a large poster displaying Osborn's "Brainstorming" rules. A bulletin board occupied another wall. Casually displayed on a third wall were pictures of former "Brainstorming" sessions. On the tables were a few of the products developed during previous sessions. In all, the room gave an appearance of informality as compared with the surrounding offices.
73In no case is the client, or any other outsider, invited to any of the meetings, for his presence would conceivably influence the participants' thinking. This in turn would defeat the "free-wheeling" thinking atmosphere.
75BBDO has found that ringing a bell is helpful in telling the panel members that they have broken a rule.
75At the close of a meeting, which lasts between one and two hours, the participants are asked to continue thinking on the problem for another day. The panel's idea collector then contacts each member the next day and gathers any additional suggestions.
76Arthur D. Little, Inc., a management consulting firm in Cambridge, MA., has developed a Design Synthesis Group within its staff. Its purpose is to develop new ideas and products for corporations who wish to expand their present lines or to diversify.
WWII? 77The idea behind the Design Synthesis Group was first developed by Mr. W. J. J. Gordon, now the group leader, back in 1939. AT this time Gordon noted that the lone inventor was gradually being replaced in industry by corporate research teams. Although the research team had proven itself, Gordon felt the talents of the lone inventor were too valuable to lose. In cases where inventors joined corporate research teams, their endeavors were stifled by the numerous restrictions placed upon them. If they chose to invent individually, they found little support from companies because of their need of license to explore at will. Gordon's idea was to combine the talents of individual inventors into an organized research team, to form an inventor-research team, later to be called the design synthesis group. This group as a whole would act like a single inventor, having almost complete freedom to explore avenues for a solution with only the lightest of discipline.
From 1944 through 1947, Gordon had opportunity to test his ideas.
80Dr. Eleroy L. Stromberg,who has been conducting the creative thinking program at B.F. Goodrich Company describes their endeavors as follows:
"...early in 1954 a special class on Creative Thinking was organized with a pilot group of twenty Technical men—chiefly engineers—from several divisions and most activities of our Akron Operation. This group met in fourteen sessions, the last four of which were devoted entirely to the problems which the company would face in future years. The course was informal and was offered on a most permissive basis where any idea was appropriate. The theory lying behind its organization is that most individuals have creative ability and talent but are so hampered by education, job requirements, management restrictions and judicial thinking by their supervisors, that new ideas are difficult to produce. The course was, there designed to break down these barriers to creative thought and make it easier for the participants to tackle problem situations."
82The A.C. Spark Plug Division of General Motors has also established a creative training program within the last two years. This program started with a series of seminars conducted by Professor John Arnold of M.I.T. for a dozen of A.C.'s top management.
Following these seminars, a tentative program was developed around the seminar material, material from Alex Osborn's book "Applied Imagination", and current plant problems. Ten conferences were used to explain the problem of creative thinking, its psychological background and underlying principles, methods of improving creativeness, and the presentation of the brainstorming technique...
The initial program was offered to approximately 175 engineers and designers by men who had been in the original seminars. The program was modified after the initial run and is currently being offered to some 200 additional engineers and management people.
83M.I.T.'s program in "Creative Engineering" began eight years ago, when Professor Hrones, then Chief of the Machine Design Department and his aide, Assistant Professor John Arnold sensed the need of something more than the conventional and rigid method in design instruction. Problems in the course at that time seldom were of the type that stimulated invention or creative thinking. Many had one unknown and one right answer. Considering their own past industrial experiences, Professors Hrones and Arnold realized that their course was not typical of the work carried out by designers in industry.
84As these changes were being made, several problems were encountered. Not only did the course material require changing but the method of instruction had to be changed also. The most difficult of these problems was the method of grading the so called "Creative Problems" now being used. With only one right answer, the job was formerly relatively simple. Now, with many right answers, the problem became complicated. The system of grading of necessity switched to one of marking a students initial assumptions his choice of approach, as well as his final answer.
8585In the discussion and instruction phases, considerable stress is placed on the psychological factors affecting design. Creative blocks and the creative process are a few of the items included here.
89The Air Force is now experimenting with a new way to teach its young officers to look ahead. A course entitled "Creative Problem Solving" is being taught to all Air R.O.T.C. students.
In developing this course Alex Osborn's work in creative thinking was studied and used in pilot courses at the University of Alabama. Following approval by the Air University of Montgomery, Alabama, instructors of the Air R.O.T.C. in the universities around the country incorporated some of Osborn's ideas into their courses on problem solving.
90There have been numerous recent articles in popular magazines publicizing Mr. Osborn's activities and the need for more creativity. During 1954, some 500 classes were conducted using Mr. Osborn's textbook. Three editions of the text, totaling 30,000 copies, were printed in 1953-54.